How To Control For Age In Cross-sectional Data

A cross-sectional report on interference control: age affects reactive command only not proactive command

Yanfang Peng

¹School of Concrete Education and Sport Preparation, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, Shanghai, Communist china

ⁱⁱSchoolhouse of Sport Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, Prc

Qin Zhu

³Partitioning of Kinesiology and Health, Academy of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA

Biye Wang

⁴Schoolhouse of Sport Science, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's republic of china

Jie Ren

⁵China Table Tennis College, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, Shanghai, China

Academic Editor: Diane Swick

Received 2019 April 24; Accepted 2019 Dec 6.

Abstract

Background

Working retentivity updating (WMU), a controlled process to continuously adapt to the irresolute task demand and environment, is crucial for cerebral executive office. Although previous studies accept shown that the elderly were more susceptible to cognitive interference than the youngsters, the motion-picture show of age-related deterioration of WMU is incomplete due to lack of study on people at their middle ages. Thus, the present study investigated the impact of age on the WMU among adults by a cross-sectional design to verify whether inefficiency interference control accounts for the aging of WMU.

Methods

In full, 112 good for you adults were recruited for this study; 28 old adults (21 female) ranging from 60 to 78 years of age; 28 middle-age adults (25 female) ranging from 45 to 59 years of historic period; 28 adults (11 female person) ranging from 26 to 44 years of age; and 28 young adults (26 female) ranging from xviii to 25 years of age. Each participant completed a 1-dorsum task. The inverse efficiency score was calculated in various sequences of three trials in a row to quantify the performance of WMU for adults of diverse ages.

Results

Inverse efficiency score of both young groups (young adult and adult) were significantly shorter than the old grouping in both Repeat-Alternate (RA, including □□○ and ○○□) and Alternate-Alternate (AA, including ○□○ and □○□) sequential patterns and they were additionally better than the middle-historic period group in AA sequential pattern.

Conclusion

With the increment of difficulty in the task, the difference in reactive interference control between immature and middle age was gradually revealed, while the difference between young and erstwhile remained to apparent. The degradation of WMU crumbling may brainstorm from middle-age and presents selective harm in that only reactive interference control, but non proactive interference control, shows pronounced historic period-related pass up. The preliminary results tin inform future studies to further explore the whole lifespan trajectories of cerebral functions.

Keywords: Interference control, Aging, Reactive control, Proactive control, 1-Back, Middle age, Sequence pattern, Working memory updating, After developed, Cantankerous-exclusive study

Introduction

Cognitive crumbling has been a central theme (Anderson & Craik, 2017) of the growing global aging because the compromised cognitive functioning in later life is a risk gene for increased morbidity and bloodshed (Bruce et al., 1995). Effective cognitive function tin can help old adults to maintain independence and promote quality of life in old age (Royall et al., 2005). The purpose of exploring age-related cerebral changes is to discover an crumbling mechanism and to provide preventative interventions. In the past two decades, a substantial body of enquiry has documented the decline of cognition for sometime adults compared to young adults. The progression of aging is unclear because centre historic period has been understudied, even so, investigating this period of the lifespan is important for the understanding of senescence.

Since WM is capacity-limited, working memory updating (WMU) is used to continuously adapt to changing chore demands and surround (Morris & Jones, 1990), and is crucial for cognitive executive part. Updating is a process of dismantling and recreating associations betwixt content and context (Artuso & Palladino, 2018). That is, unbinding the outdated contents from their contexts in time and establishing new bindings (Oberauer, 2009). It is hard to distinguish betwixt outdated and new items particularly when they're like. Many studies have proved that the WMU of young adults over older adults was amend, because older adults decreased the power to modulate encephalon activation and they could not maintain a meliorate availability of attending representations to efficiently inhibit irrelevant information (Arjona, Escudero & Gómez, 2016; Fiore et al., 2011; Podell et al., 2012; Sambataro et al., 2015). Old adults demand larger accuracy cost and an additional focus-switch cost, which is the cost of switching attention to relevant information (Schmiedek, Li & Lindenberger, 2009; Verhaeghen & Basak, 2005), especially old-old adults (Borella et al., 2007; De Beni & Palladino, 2004; Kato et al., 2016). The inefficient inhibition of irrelevant data was thought to exist the crucial reason for WMU aging. Simply Borella, Carretti & De Beni (2008) recruited 304 subjects age-range 20–86 to measure four kinds of WM tasks and ii kinds of inhibition tasks. Results showed that inhibition was non equally a crucial contributor to historic period-related decline in the functional capacity of WM beyond the adult life-span every bit previously idea. Recently, Dagry, Vergauwe & Barrouillet (2017) suggested that during WMU, attention was allocated to capture current goals but not to inhibit stimulus that should be ignored.

Command processes are a disquisitional component of the WM function (Braver, Grey & Burgess, 2012). When the task contains high interference, the task volition tax more than cerebral control resources to protect the contents of retention confronting interference (Szmalec et al., 2011). Control processes in WMU are responsible for selecting relevant information; preventing interference; updating at appropriate junctures and so on (Braver, Gray & Burgess, 2012). Kessler & Meiran (2006, 2008) pointed out in that location are two dissociable contained components contributing to WMU, one is used to change the relevant representations in memory, the other one is used to protect the contents of WM against interference. Some empirical studies likewise embraced this view (Artuso & Palladino, 2011; Rac-Lubashevsky & Kessler, 2016b). For example, in the N-back task, the mismatch trials containing a switch price was performed slower than the lucifer trials, and the lure trials (no-longer/no-yet relevant particular corresponds to the currently presented item) were performed slower than the mismatch trials due to more similarity-based interference they caused (Szmalec et al., 2011). The memory of previous trials affected the electric current performance (Rac-Lubashevsky & Kessler, 2016b; Szmalec et al., 2009). How does the control procedure work? The Dual Mechanisms of Control theory stated that 2 types of cognitive control are dynamically interacting with each other. 1 is reactive command, which is a transient stimulus-driven. Information technology is responsible for "just-in-time" selection past detecting and solving interference later it occurs. The other one is proactive control, which is anticipatory goal-driven. It is responsible for early selection by anticipating and preventing interference earlier it occurs (Braver, 2012; Braver, Gray & Burgess, 2012). Which cognitive control is the crucial contributor to WMU aging? Some evidence showed that age selectively impaired cognitive control. Recent studies reported that old adults had selective difficulty in memorizing content–context associations but not in isolated contents (Artuso et al., 2017; Artuso & Palladino, 2011; McCormick-Huhn et al., 2018; Onetime & Naveh-Benjamin, 2008; Pelegrina et al., 2012) and the delays in option were longer with a office of memory load (Artuso et al., 2017), implying that proactive control was dumb with aging. But Xiang et al. (2016) reported that older adults had selective deficits in reactive control.

Previous literature comparing immature with one-time adults constitute an aging effect on WMU, however, the progression of age-related changes and the crucial element causing WMU aging were unknown because of the exclusion of middle-age adults in the previous studies. Previous studies suggested that besides vocabulary knowledge, which increases with aging (Miller & Lachman, 2003; Salthouse, 2010; Singh-Manoux et al., 2012), most cognitive functions decline with aging and nowadays variant recession cycles. For example, content–context bounden (Cowan et al., 2006; Hommel, Kray & Lindenberger, 2011; Siegel, 1994; Swanson, 2017) and switch (Kray, Eber & Lindenberger, 2004; Reimers & Maylor, 2005) decrease approximately linearly across the developed life-span. The reject of memory, process speed, inhibition and reasoning begin from eye historic period (Anstey et al., 2015; Borella, Carretti & De Beni, 2008; Davis et al., 2017; Hughes et al., 2018; Persad et al., 2002; Singh-Manoux et al., 2012; Zimprich & Mascherek, 2010). Although the timing of historic period-related decline of cognitive functions varies, middle historic period looks like an important age purlieus.

This report focused on verifying whether inefficient interference control is a crucial contributor to WMU aging across the adult life span and employed 1-dorsum exam, which includes two stimuli. The interference difficulty was manipulated past adjusting the sequence relationship. Sequential interference had an accumulative effect in N-back test (Oberauer et al., 2013; Salmi et al., 2018; Soetens, Boer & Hueting, 1985) and only lure trial N−1 showed a pregnant sequence outcome in 1-back test (Rac-Lubashevsky & Kessler, 2016b), which had been proved by previous studies. 4 sequence patterns were distinguished past the sequence of three trials in a row. The main objective is to assess age-changes of WMU in four sequence patterns. If WMU crumbling is attributed to inefficient interferent control, the age-related decline was steeper as interference increases. The hypotheses stated that (1) WMU functioning will turn down with interference increase, (2) the WMU degradation begins from middle-historic period and becomes steeper in old age and (3) historic period-related decline is getting steeper as interference increases.

Methods and Materials

Ethical blessing

This report received approval from the Ethics Committee of Shanghai University of Sport (No. 2017044).

Participants

The sample consisted of 112 developed participants, 28 older adults (21 female person) ranging from 60 to 78 years of age (M = 67.68, SD = iv.23); 28 heart-historic period adults (25 female person) ranging from 45 to 59 years of historic period (M = 54.25, SD = iv.84); 28 adults (11 female) ranging from 26 to 44 years of historic period (M = 31.68, SD = 4.63); and 28 young adults (26 female) ranging from eighteen to 25 years of historic period (Thousand = 22.71, SD = 1.67), recruited through Shanghai University of Sport and local communities. Participants were compensated for a small gift for their participation. All participants didn't have cognitive impairment as tested by the Mini-mental State Test and signed the informed consent (come across Table 1).

Table 1

Participant demographics.

Age grouping	Northward	Hateful historic period	BMI	Females	MMSE score
Young-adults	28	22.71 (1.67)	20.4 (one.8)	26	–
Adults	28	31.68 (4.63)	22.eight (two.8)	11	–
Middle-anile adults	28	54.21 (4.06)	23 (2.7)	25	–
Old	28	67.68 (4.37)	23 (2.2)	21	27.viii (2.2)

Stimuli

The i-dorsum task was adopted from Rac-Lubashevsky & Kessler (2016a, 2016b) to observe a participant's ability to update information. This task involved the continuous presentation of a solid grey square "□" (side length 38 mm) or a solid gray circle "○" (the diameter of 38 mm). A Lenovo computer with a 17-inch VGA display (frequency 60 Hz, resolution 1,366 × 768) was used for stimulus presentation, and the Matlab2015 software package (Psychtoolbox iii.0) was used for response sampling. All stimuli were presented on a white background.

Task

Participants were instructed to monitor stimuli subtended a visual bending of v.73° horizontally and v.73° vertically from viewing distance 55 cm and decided whether the presented shape was the same as the 1 that had been presented immediately before by pressing one of two keys on a response box: "3" for "yes" and "ane" for "no". The test consisted of a exercise block and two formal experimental blocks. The practice block contained twenty trials with feedback to familiarize the participant with the task. The system automatically transitions to the formal experimental session until the accurateness reached up to 66.7% in the practice session, otherwise, the organisation remained in the do session. The information of the practice session was not recorded.

Each cake of the formal test included 42 trials and started with a blank fixation screen presented for 500 ms, the stimulus "□" or "○" was then presented for 500 ms randomly, followed past a white display for 1,500 ms. Participants were required to respond quickly and accurately as soon as the target stimuli appeared. The maximum duration for a response to be made was 2,000 ms (the presentation of the stimulus 500 ms + the presentation of white display 1,500 ms). Reaction time and accuracy were automatically recorded past Matlab2015. If the participant didn't answer in time (RT > ii,000 ms), the reaction time was recorded every bit an error. Participants were assured with adequate rest between two blocks of the experiment (Fig. 1).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc. Object name is peerj-08-8365-g001.jpg

The 1-dorsum chore procedure.

The task started with a blank fixation screen presented for 500 ms , the stimulus "□" or "○" was then presented for 500 ms randomly, followed by a white brandish for 1,500 ms. Participants were required to respond speedily and accurately as soon as the target stimuli appeared. If it was the same equally the previous trial pressing "1" (same), if not pressing "iii" (difference). The maximum duration for response to be made was 2,000 ms (the presentation of the stimulus 500 ms + the presentation of white display i,500 ms).

Statistical assay

Previous studies reported that merely the lure trial (trial N−1) influenced the current functioning (Trial N+ane) in the 1-back job (Rac-Lubashevsky & Kessler, 2016b, 2016a; Soetens, Boer & Hueting, 1985; Szmalec et al., 2011). Appropriately, the data were classified by the sequence of three trials in a row, and four sequence patterns could be identified: (1) Repeating the same stimulus three times (named as RR; including □□□ and ○○○); (ii) Repeating the aforementioned stimulus twice followed by a different stimulus, (named as RA; including ○○□ and □□○); (iii) Altering the stimulus in the first two followed by repeating the 2d stimulus on the 3rd (named as AR; including ○□□ and □○○); (4) Altering the stimuli twice in the iii trials (named equally AA; including ○□○ and □○□) (Fig. 2).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc. Object name is peerj-08-8365-g002.jpg

Iv different sequential patterns with the sequence of iii trials in a row.

(A) Repeating the aforementioned stimulus three times is named as RR. (B) Repeating the same stimulus twice followed by a different stimulus (named as RA; including ○○□ and □□○). (C) Altering the stimulus in first 2 followed past repeating the second stimulus on the tertiary (named every bit AR; including ○□□ and □○○). (D) Altering the stimuli twice in the three trials (named as AA; including ○□○ and □○□).

RT information were cleaned by removing inaccurate and no response trials. RT below 100 ms was treated as response error, and outlying trials which were more than three standard deviations above each sequence patter condition mean were removed. Time cost and accurateness are known to be negatively related (Pachella, 1974). Particularly, with increasing difficulty, participants may decide to emphasize either speed or accuracy. Disregard accuracy or analyzing the accuracy and RTs separately impair the power to notice relationships and interactions (Hughes et al., 2014). Consequently, inverse efficiency score (IES), RT with consideration of response accuracy, has been proposed every bit a good way (Bruyer & Brysbaert, 2011; Townsend & Ashby, 1978) and be used to evaluate updating in this written report. IES is calculated as RT divided by PC (the proportion of correct responses). The formula is IES = RT/PC. Performance and IES are negatively related, a lower IES corresponds to better performance. A 4 × four (Sequence pattern × Age) mixed-pattern ANOVA with sequence design (RR, RA, AR and AA) as within-subjects factor and Age (18–25 historic period, 26–44 age, 45–59 age and ≥threescore age) as a between-subjects factor was employed to examine the furnishings of interference and age on WMU.

Results

The two-style ANOVA showed significant main effects for Age (F (3, 108) = 17.43, p < 0.001, $η_{p}^{two}$ = 0.326), Pattern (F (3, 108) = 132.27, p < 0.001, $η_{p}^{ii}$ = 0.551). Tukey post-hoc comparisons showed that young adults outperformed heart-age (p < 0.001) and old (p < 0.001), the aforementioned results appeared between adults and middle-age (p < 0.01) and one-time (p < 0.001); the deviation were not observed both between immature adults and adults grouping (p = 0.725) and middle-age and former group (p = 0.554). That unsaid the serious degradation of WMU began in middle-age. The significant differences amongst the four sequence patterns were too observed, implying the declined functioning with increasing interference, IES of RR was the lowest, then RA, then AR, AA was the highest (p < 0.001).

The interaction between Age and Pattern (F (3, 324) = 6.55, p < 0.001, $η_{p}^{2}$ = 0.121) reached significance. The elementary primary effect analysis showed a significant age effect in RA (F (three, 432) = 3.87, p < 0.01) and AA (F (3, 432) = 35.79, p < 0.001), the post hoc Tukey'southward HSD test showed that both immature groups outperformed the sometime grouping in RA, and they outperformed both middle-age and onetime groups in AA (see Tabular array 2). In summary, WMU declined with increasing age, however, the selective historic period-related impaired was presented (see Fig. iii).

Table 2

Historic period grouping comparison between Young adult (xviii–25 age), Adult (26–44 age), Middle-age (45–59 age), Old age (threescore age) nearly four sequential patterns.

Sequential design	Age groups (ms)				Uncomplicated master consequence of Age (F)	Mail service hoc Tukey HSD test
Sequential design	18–25 ①	26–44 ②	45–59 ③	60 ④	Uncomplicated master consequence of Age (F)	Mail service hoc Tukey HSD test
RR	538.2 (24.2)	608.ix (37.four)	685 (37.3)	843.2 (73.2)	i.5
RA	686.two (thirty.1)	716.7 (46.iv)	i,004.6 (56.four)	i,110 (64.two)	3.87^**	① < ④^* ② < ④^*
AR	807.nine (42.three)	965.vi (77.five)	1,030 (48.2)	i,210.ii (90.6)	2.42
AA	1,340.8 (93.2)	one,406.5 (106.9)	2,488.1 (256.6)	2,472.7 (243.8)	35.79^**	① < ③^ ② < ③^ ① < ④^ ② < ④^

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc. Object name is peerj-08-8365-g003.jpg

The age-related change during various sequence patterns.

X centrality is sequence pattern, Y axis is the changed efficiency score (RTc/PC). Fault bars represent standard error.

Word

The study aimed to analyze the touch of age on WMU interference control past a cross-sectional comparing. Updating requires belongings temporary binding between contents and contexts and unbinding outdated contents in time because WM capacity is express. Cognitive control should hold maximal flexibility to observe an optimal balance betwixt maintaining and replacing to ensure performance, especially on a potent interference task. In this study, the interference difficulty was manipulated by adjusting the sequence relationship, iv sequence patterns including RR, RA, AR and AA patterns were classified past three trials in a row. The participants were divided into the youngster, center-aged and the elderly. Besides, the young participants were subdivided into immature adults and adults, considering middle-aged had been understudied in previous aging studies, potentially due to that the difference between middle age and other groups was non observed (Phillips et al., 2011). Subdivision of youth groups could help us to acquire a ameliorate understanding of the progression of age-related changes across adult life-span particularly from young to middle age. Our results showed two young groups outperformed the old group in both RA and AA and they were additionally better than the middle-age group in AA sequential pattern.

Iv sequential patterns were classified by three trials in a row. Equally we expected, the performance declined with interference increase. Rac-Lubashevsky & Kessler (2016a, 2016b) separated several contributions to updating past reference-back job. The reference-back task contains reference trials, which is presented inside a ruby frame, and comparison trials, which is presented inside a blue frame. The participants are required to guess whether the presented stimulus is the same as, or unlike from, the previous reference trials. In other words, the comparison trials should be compared to the previous reference trails, merely should not be updated. Compared with comparing trials, reference trials contain an additional updating cost. In this study, repetition trials as comparing trials should non be updated, the price was smaller than alternation trials (RR < RA; AR < AA). The previous study of two-culling forced-choice task or 1-back choice chore constitute AR elicited a stimulus–response (South–R) disharmonize response which contains additional fourth dimension cost and accurate cost than other patterns (Rac-Lubashevsky & Kessler, 2016b; Szmalec et al., 2009). But the response of 1-back depended on the relationship betwixt the previous trial and the electric current stimulus. AA requires the participant to switch focus to relevant information and to foreclose similarly interference in terms of ensuring a currently advisable action (Wylie & Allport, 2000). In this study, an accumulative effect of the sequence interference was observed, particularly in AA (RR < AR; RA < AA), suggesting two contained sources of contribution to updating. That was consequent with previous studies (Artuso & Palladino, 2011; Kessler & Meiran, 2006, 2008; Rac-Lubashevsky & Kessler, 2016b).

A better WMU of young adults over older adults was proved in this study also as in many previous studies (Artuso et al., 2017; Guerreiro, Potato & Van Gerven, 2013; Hommel, Kray & Lindenberger, 2011; Pelegrina et al., 2012; Phillips et al., 2011; Schmiedek, Li & Lindenberger, 2009). And the superior performance of young groups to the heart age group was observed in this study. No divergence was found between young adult and adult. No difference was constitute between middle-anile and one-time adults on full mean IES. Only two stimuli were employed in this study to induce larger similarity-based interference, used IES to increase the detection power, and shortened ISI to forbid participators from refreshing during costless time. Fifty-fifty under the circumstances, the difference between young and middle historic period was observed only in the pattern with the biggest interference (AA). The task of previous studies was possibly also easy to observe the early onset of cognitive impairment at eye age. This is possibly the reason why middle-anile understudied in previous aging studies.

Age-related changes varied amidst iv sequential patterns and only appeared in RA and AA. The divergence between young and quondam adults was observed in RA and AA. RA and AA contain a characteristic that requires updating the new item and replacing the outdated one subsequently the onset of new items. The age-related decline was observed in alternation trials disregarding prior sequence characteristics, suggesting that age only affected only-in-fourth dimension selection. The reactive control, but not proactive control, declined with aging (Xiang et al., 2016). That challenged earlier views of historic period can only touch on proactive control (Botvinick et al., 2001; Braver & West, 2015). The deviation between young and middle-aged was observed in AA, but not in RA. Compared with RA, AA elicits more than similarity-based interference and requires more cerebral command than RA. The difference between young and eye-aged was gradually revealed with the increment of interference, while the deviation between young and sometime remained to exist apparent, reflecting the deposition of WMU begins from the centre-age. The age-related refuse just appeared in mismatch trials, implying age-related switch deficit might be a crucial correspondent to WMU crumbling across the adult lifespan. However, previous switch crumbling studies suggested that special switch cost, which represented the differences betwixt switch and nonswitch trials within a cake equally in this report, were largely unrelated to age; only the global switch, the ability to efficiently coordinate multiple tasks, was negatively affected by age (Kray & Lindenberger, 2000; Mayr & Liebscher, 2001). Using varied tasks may cause different results. The N-dorsum chore may exist a measure of cognitive control when it involves higher interference (Szmalec et al., 2011). And its interference tin continuously increase by manipulating the sequence relationship. The chore-induced huge similarity-based interference due to employing only two stimuli in this study and the IES index was adopted to ensure the power. All of this may prompt some new findings. Age-related decline in reactive interference control but not in proactive control was gradually revealed after heart age and the decline got steeper with age. In the hereafter, research, particularly including eye age, should consider the impact of job difficulty and the power of indexing on the result. And future studies should explore further the relationship betwixt updating, interference, and aging using the N-back task.

Limitations

The present study had a few limitations. Firstly, the main motivation of the report is to explore the progression of WMU aging by including the centre age grouping, simply the sample size of the cantankerous-sectional blueprint was likewise pocket-size to further explore timing detail of onset of crumbling and the progression of aging afterwards 60 age. Secondly, the cross-exclusive design could non avoid individual differences inside historic period groups. A larger sample of participants should exist recruited in time to come studies and combine with cross-exclusive and longitudinal follow-up design, which may outset the defect of the present study. Finally, the lack of information on didactics and other socioeconomic variables of the studied population may limit the generalization of the findings.

Conclusions

In conclusion, with the increase of difficulty in the chore, the difference in reactive cognitive command between immature and heart age was gradually revealed, while the difference between young and old remained to be credible. The results reflected that WMU degradation may begin from the eye age and become steeper in onetime historic period. WMU aging presents selective impairment. Only reactive interference command, but not proactive interference control, shows pronounced age-related decline, which mainly reflects a larger special switch cost. Age-related switch reject may exist a crucial contributor to WMU in crumbling. The preliminary results tin inform future studies to further explore the whole lifespan trajectories of cerebral functions.

Funding Statement

This work was supported by the Soft Scientific discipline Research Project of Wenzhou Science and Technology Bureau (No. R20170042) The funders had no role in study pattern, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Boosted Information and Declarations

Competing Interests

The authors declare that they take no competing interests.

Author Contributions

Yanfang Peng conceived and designed the experiments, performed the experiments, analyzed the data, prepared figures and/or tables, authored or reviewed drafts of the paper, and approved the final typhoon.

Qin Zhu analyzed the information, authored or reviewed drafts of the paper, and approved the terminal typhoon.

Biye Wang performed the experiments, prepared figures and/or tables, and approved the final draft.

Jie Ren conceived and designed the experiments, prepared figures and/or tables, and approved the final draft.

Homo Ideals

The following information was supplied relating to upstanding approvals (i.due east., approving body and any reference numbers):

The Ideals Committee of Shanghai University of Sport granted ethical approval to carry out the study within its facilities (Ethical Awarding Ref: 2017044).

Information Availability

The following information was supplied regarding data availability:

The raw measurements are available as a Supplemental File.

References

Anderson & Craik (2017) Anderson ND, Craik FIM. 50 years of cerebral crumbling theory. Journals of Gerontology Serial B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 2017;72(1):1–6. doi: x.1093/geronb/gbw108. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Anstey et al. (2015) Anstey KJ, Sargent-Cox Chiliad, Eramudugolla R, Magliano DJ, Shaw JE. Clan of cognitive function with glucose tolerance and trajectories of glucose tolerance over 12 years in the AusDiab study. Alzheimer'due south Enquiry & Therapy. 2015;7(1):48. doi: x.1186/s13195-015-0131-iv. [PMC costless article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Arjona, Escudero & Gómez (2016) Arjona A, Escudero M, Gómez CM. Cue validity probability influences neural processing of targets. Biological Psychology. 2016;119:171–183. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.07.001. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Artuso et al. (2017) Artuso C, Cavallini E, Bottiroli Southward, Palladino P. Updating working memory: memory load matters with aging. Aging Clinical and Experimental Enquiry. 2017;29(3):371–377. doi: ten.1007/s40520-016-0581-y. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Artuso & Palladino (2011) Artuso C, Palladino P. Content–context bounden in verbal working memory updating: on-line and off-line effects. Acta Psychologica. 2011;136(3):363–369. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.01.001. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Artuso & Palladino (2018) Artuso C, Palladino P. How sublexical association force modulates updating: cognitive and strategic effects. Memory & Cognition. 2018;46(2):285–297. doi: ten.3758/s13421-017-0764-6. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Borella et al. (2007) Borella East, Carretti B, Cornoldi C, De Beni R. Working retentiveness, command of interference and everyday feel of thought interference: when age makes the difference. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research. 2007;19(3):200–206. doi: 10.1007/BF03324690. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Borella, Carretti & De Beni (2008) Borella E, Carretti B, De Beni R. Working memory and inhibition beyond the adult life-span. Acta Psychologica. 2008;128(1):33–44. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.09.008. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Botvinick et al. (2001) Botvinick MM, Carter CS, Braver TS, Barch DM, Cohen JD. Conflict monitoring and cerebral control. Psychological Review. 2001;108(3):624–652. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.624. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Braver (2012) Braver TS. The variable nature of cognitive command: a dual mechanisms framework. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2012;sixteen(two):106–113. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.12.010. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Braver, Gray & Burgess (2012) Braver TS, Gray JR, Burgess GC. Explaining the many varieties of working retentiveness variation: dual mechanisms of cerebral control. In: Conway CA, Jarrold MK, Miyake A, Towse J, editors. Variation in Working Retention. Oxford: Oxford Academy Press; 2012. pp. 76–106. [Google Scholar]

Braver & West (2015) Braver TS, Westward R. Working retentivity, executive control, and aging. In: Craik FIM, Salthouse TA, editors. The Handbook of Aging and Cognition. New York: Psychology press; 2015. pp. 311–372. [Google Scholar]

Bruce et al. (1995) Bruce ML, Hoff RA, Jacobs SC, Leaf PJ. The effects of cognitive impairment on 9-year mortality in a community sample. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 1995;50B(vi):P289–P296. doi: 10.1093/geronb/50B.6.P289. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Bruyer & Brysbaert (2011) Bruyer R, Brysbaert M. Combining speed and accuracy in cerebral psychology: is the inverse efficiency score (IES) a better dependent variable than the mean reaction fourth dimension (RT) and the percentage of errors (PE)? Psychologica Belgica. 2011;51(1):5. doi: x.5334/pb-51-1-five. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Cowan et al. (2006) Cowan N, Naveh-Benjamin M, Kilb A, Saults JS. Life-span development of visual working memory: when is feature binding difficult? Developmental Psychology. 2006;42(6):1089–1102. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.42.6.1089. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Dagry, Vergauwe & Barrouillet (2017) Dagry I, Vergauwe Eastward, Barrouillet P. Cleaning working memory: the fate of distractors. Periodical of Memory and Linguistic communication. 2017;92:327–342. doi: ten.1016/j.jml.2016.08.002. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Davis et al. (2017) Davis D, Bendayan R, Muniz Terrera Thousand, Hardy R, Richards M, Kuh D. Decline in search speed and verbal retentiveness over 26 years of midlife in a British nascency accomplice. Neuroepidemiology. 2017;49(iii–four):121–128. doi: 10.1159/000481136. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

De Beni & Palladino (2004) De Beni R, Palladino P. Pass up in working memory updating through ageing: intrusion error analyses. Memory. 2004;12(one):75–89. doi: 10.1080/09658210244000568. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Fiore et al. (2011) Fiore F, Borella E, Mammarella IC, Cornoldi C. Mental imagery in a visuospatial working memory chore and modulation of activation. Journal of Cognitive Psychology. 2011;23(1):52–59. doi: ten.1080/20445911.2011.454497. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Guerreiro, Murphy & Van Gerven (2013) Guerreiro MJS, Potato DR, Van Gerven PWM. Making sense of age-related distractibility: the disquisitional part of sensory modality. Acta Psychologica. 2013;142(2):184–194. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.11.007. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Hommel, Kray & Lindenberger (2011) Hommel B, Kray J, Lindenberger U. Characteristic integration across the lifespan: stickier stimulus–response bindings in children and older adults. Frontiers in Psychology. 2011;2:268. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00268. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Hughes et al. (2018) Hughes ML, Agrigoroaei Southward, Jeon M, Bruzzese M, Lachman ME. Change in cerebral performance from midlife into one-time age: findings from the midlife in the U.s.a. (MIDUS) written report. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Social club. 2018;24(8):805–820. doi: 10.1017/S1355617718000425. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Hughes et al. (2014) Hughes MM, Linck JA, Bowles AR, Koeth JT, Bunting MF. Alternatives to switch-cost scoring in the task-switching paradigm: their reliability and increased validity. Beliefs Research Methods. 2014;46(three):702–721. doi: 10.3758/s13428-013-0411-5. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Kato et al. (2016) Kato Yard, Nakamura A, Kato T, Kuratsubo I, Iwata K, Yamagishi M, Ito K. Age-related changes in attentional command using an N-back working retentiveness paradigm. Experimental Crumbling Enquiry. 2016;42(iv):390–402. doi: 10.1080/0361073X.2016.1191867. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Kessler & Meiran (2006) Kessler Y, Meiran N. All updateable objects in working memory are updated whenever whatsoever of them are modified: evidence from the retentivity updating epitome. Periodical of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Retention, and Cognition. 2006;32(three):570–585. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.32.3.570. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Kessler & Meiran (2008) Kessler Y, Meiran N. Two dissociable updating processes in working retentivity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Knowledge. 2008;34(6):1339–1348. doi: 10.1037/a0013078. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Kray, Eber & Lindenberger (2004) Kray J, Eber J, Lindenberger U. Age differences in executive operation across the lifespan: the role of verbalization in task preparation. Acta Psychologica. 2004;115(ii–3):143–165. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.12.001. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Kray & Lindenberger (2000) Kray J, Lindenberger U. Developed age differences in job switching. Psychology and Aging. 2000;15(1):126–147. doi: ten.1037/0882-7974.15.1.126. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Mayr & Liebscher (2001) Mayr U, Liebscher T. Is there an age deficit in the option of mental sets? European Journal of Cognitive Psychology. 2001;13(1–two):47–69. doi: 10.1080/09541440042000214. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

McCormick-Huhn et al. (2018) McCormick-Huhn JM, Chen H, Wyble BP, Dennis NA. Using aspect amnesia to test the limits of hyper-binding and associative deficits in working retentiveness. Psychology and Aging. 2018;33(i):165–175. doi: x.1037/pag0000213. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Miller & Lachman (2003) Miller LMS, Lachman ME. Cerebral operation and the role of control beliefs in midlife. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Noesis. 2003;7(2):69–85. doi: 10.1076/1382-5585(200006)7:2;1-U;FT069. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Morris & Jones (1990) Morris N, Jones DM. Memory updating in working retention: the role of the fundamental executive. British Journal of Psychology. 1990;81(2):111–121. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1990.tb02349.x. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Oberauer (2009) Oberauer Thousand. Design for a working memory. Psychology of Learning and Motivation. 2009;57(9):45–100. [Google Scholar]

Oberauer et al. (2013) Oberauer One thousand, Souza AS, Druey Doctor, Gade 1000. Analogous mechanisms of selection and updating in declarative and procedural working memory: experiments and a computational model. Cognitive Psychology. 2013;66(ii):157–211. doi: ten.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.eleven.001. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Erstwhile & Naveh-Benjamin (2008) Old SR, Naveh-Benjamin M. Differential effects of age on item and associative measures of memory: a meta-analysis. Psychology and Crumbling. 2008;23(one):104–118. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.23.1.104. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Pachella (1974) Pachella RG. The interpretation of reaction time in information processing research. In: Kantowitz B, editor. Human Information Processing: Tutorials in Performance and Knowledge. New York: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates; 1974. pp. 41–82. [Google Scholar]

Pelegrina et al. (2012) Pelegrina S, Borella E, Carretti B, Lechuga MT. Similarity-based interference in a working retentivity numerical updating task: age-related differences betwixt younger and older adults. Experimental Psychology. 2012;59(4):183–189. doi: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000142. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Persad et al. (2002) Persad CC, Abeles N, Zacks RT, Denburg NL. Inhibitory changes later historic period 60 and their relationship to measures of attention and retentiveness. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 2002;57(3):P223–P232. doi: 10.1093/geronb/57.3.P223. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Phillips et al. (2011) Phillips LH, Balderdash R, Allen R, Insch P, Burr K, Ogg W. Lifespan aging and belief reasoning: influences of executive function and social cue decoding. Cognition. 2011;120(2):236–247. doi: x.1016/j.cognition.2011.05.003. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Podell et al. (2012) Podell JE, Sambataro F, Murty VP, Emery MR, Tong Y, Das Due south, Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR, Mattay VS. Neurophysiological correlates of age-related changes in working retentivity updating. NeuroImage. 2012;62(3):2151–2160. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.05.066. [PMC gratuitous commodity] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Rac-Lubashevsky & Kessler (2016a) Rac-Lubashevsky R, Kessler Y. Decomposing the northward-back chore: an individual differences study using the reference-back epitome. Neuropsychologia. 2016a;xc:190–199. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.07.013. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Rac-Lubashevsky & Kessler (2016b) Rac-Lubashevsky R, Kessler Y. Dissociating working memory updating and automatic updating: the reference-back epitome. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 2016b;42(half-dozen):951–969. doi: 10.1037/xlm0000219. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Reimers & Maylor (2005) Reimers Southward, Maylor EA. Task switching across the life span: effects of historic period on general and specific switch costs. Developmental Psychology. 2005;41(4):661–671. doi: x.1037/0012-1649.41.4.661. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Royall et al. (2005) Royall DR, Palmer R, Chiodo LK, Polk MJ. Normal rates of cognitive modify in successful aging: the freedom firm written report. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Club. 2005;11(vii):899–909. doi: 10.1017/S135561770505109X. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Salmi et al. (2018) Salmi J, Soveri A, Rodríguez-Fornells A, Laine Yard, Lehtonen One thousand, Vilà-Balló A. Neural signatures for active maintenance and interference during working retentivity updating. Biological Psychology. 2018;132:233–243. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.01.007. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Salthouse (2010) Salthouse TA. Selective review of cerebral aging. Periodical of the International Neuropsychological Gild. 2010;sixteen(five):754–760. doi: x.1017/S1355617710000706. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Sambataro et al. (2015) Sambataro F, Podell JE, Murty VP, Das S, Kolachana B, Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR, Mattay VS. A variable number of tandem repeats in the 3′-untranslated region of the dopamine transporter modulates striatal function during working memory updating across the developed historic period span. European Periodical of Neuroscience. 2015;42(3):1912–1918. doi: x.1111/ejn.12956. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Schmiedek, Li & Lindenberger (2009) Schmiedek F, Li S-C, Lindenberger U. Interference and facilitation in spatial working memory: age-associated differences in lure furnishings in the N-back image. Psychology and Crumbling. 2009;24(1):203–210. doi: 10.1037/a0014685. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Siegel (1994) Siegel LS. Working memory and reading: a life-bridge perspective. International Periodical of Behavioral Development. 1994;17(1):109–124. doi: 10.1177/016502549401700107. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Singh-Manoux et al. (2012) Singh-Manoux A, Kivimaki Thousand, Glymour MM, Elbaz A, Berr C, Ebmeier KP, Ferrie JE, Dugravot A. Timing of onset of cognitive reject: results from whitehall 2 prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2012;344(7840):d7622. doi: 10.1136/bmj.d7622. [PMC costless article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Soetens, Boer & Hueting (1985) Soetens E, Boer LC, Hueting JE. Expectancy or automatic facilitation? Separating sequential effects in ii-choice reaction time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human being Perception and Performance. 1985;11(5):598–616. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.eleven.5.598. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Swanson (2017) Swanson HL. Verbal and visual-spatial working memory: what develops over a life span? Developmental Psychology. 2017;53(5):971–995. doi: x.1037/dev0000291. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Szmalec et al. (2009) Szmalec A, Demanet J, Vandierendonck A, Verbruggen F. Investigating the role of conflict resolution in memory updating past ways of the i-dorsum selection RT job. Psychological Enquiry. 2009;73(three):390–406. doi: 10.1007/s00426-008-0149-three. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Szmalec et al. (2011) Szmalec A, Verbruggen F, Vandierendonck A, Kemps E. Control of interference during working retentiveness updating. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Functioning. 2011;37(1):137–151. doi: x.1037/a0020365. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Townsend & Ashby (1978) Townsend JT, Ashby FG. Methods of modeling capacity in unproblematic processing systems. In: Castellan IJ, Restle F, editors. Cerebral Theory. Vol. three. Hillsdale: Erlbaum; 1978. pp. 200–239. [Google Scholar]

Verhaeghen & Basak (2005) Verhaeghen P, Basak C. Ageing and switching of the focus of attending in working retention: results from a modified N-dorsum job. Quarterly Periodical of Experimental Psychology Section A: Human Experimental Psychology. 2005;58(ane):134–154. doi: 10.1080/02724980443000241. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Wylie & Allport (2000) Wylie G, Allport A. Job switching and the measurement of "switch costs" Psychological Research. 2000;63(three–4):212–233. doi: 10.1007/s004269900003. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Xiang et al. (2016) Xiang L, Zhang B, Wang B, Jiang J, Zhang F, Hu Z. The consequence of aging on the dynamics of reactive and proactive cognitive command of response interference. Frontiers in Psychology. 2016;seven:1640. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01640. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Zimprich & Mascherek (2010) Zimprich D, Mascherek A. V views of a secret: does knowledge change during middle adulthood? European Journal of Ageing. 2010;seven(3):135–146. doi: ten.1007/s10433-010-0161-v. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Manufactures from PeerJ are provided hither courtesy of PeerJ, Inc